"What, bhikkhus, is dependent origination?
With ignorance as condition, volitional formations come to be;
with volitional formations as condition, consciousness;
with consciousness as condition, mentality-and-materiality;
with mentality-and-materiality, the six sense bases;
with the six sense bases as condition, contact;
with contact as condition, feeling;
with feeling as condition, craving;
with craving as condition, clinging;
with clinging as condition, existence;
with existence as condition, birth;
with birth as condition, aging-and-death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, displeasure, and despair come to be.
Such is the origin of this whole mass of suffering."
The Second Noble Truth, which is the Noble Truth of the Origin of Suffering is explained by the Buddha with "Dependent Origination (Paṭiccasamuppāda)" to indicate how and why we are endowed the mass of dukkha, i.e. the five clinging aggregates. So firstly, we have to explore and try to understand what is meant by dependent origination (paṭiccasamuppāda).
Samuppāda, translated as 'arising' or 'origination,' refers to the causal phenomenon (dhamma) that gives rise to another phenomenon (dhamma). On the other hand, 'Paṭicca,' translated as 'depending on' or 'because of another phenomenon,' signifies dependency. Paṭicca-samuppāda is commonly defined as 'Dependent Origination' or 'Dependent Arising' in English because paṭicca-samuppāda represents the conditioning or causal dhamma (causal phenomenon). This causal dhamma, in turn, relies on another cause, indicating its dependency on preceding factors. Hence, this causal dhamma cannot be considered the root cause (mūla) since it is contingent on another cause. It is classified as a resultant dhamma or conditioned phenomenon.
As a result, the Buddha asserted that all formations lack both a causeless cause and a primary cause. In reality, all phenomena are interconnected through cause and effect, or they exist in an interdependent relationship. According to the suttas, the five clinging aggregates are suffering (dukkha), and the reason for such suffering to arise stems from various causes that are not primary—meaning they do not emerge out of nowhere or originate from a single primary cause. In certain philosophies, there exists a belief in a singular, permanent root cause that gives rise to sentient beings. That singular cause is also something that is everlasting or arises out of nothing.
In accordance with the Buddha's teachings, there isn't a singular root cause, a cause that is everlasting and arises out of nothing. As you may already know that ignorance (avijjā) and craving (taṇhā) are the causes for the rounds of rebirth, i.e. the causes for dukkha, and that ignorance (avijjā) is a condition for volition (saṅkhāra) to arise. However, it is very vital to understand that even ignorance (avijjā) isn't the primary cause. While the Buddha began explaining dependent origination with avijjā, it itself has antecedents. So, what precedes avijjā? The Buddha explained in several suttas that ignorance arises dependent on a canker (āsavasamudayā avijjāsamudayo). There are four types of cankers: canker of sensual pleasure (kāmāsava), canker of becoming (bhavāsava), canker of wrong view (diṭṭhāsava), and canker of ignorance (avijjāsava).
A canker can be defined as the 'intoxicant' of the mind. When these cankers manifest, avijjā emerges. So, avijjā isn't a "causeless cause" or a "root cause." Avijjā itself is caused by these cankers. Basically what paṭiccasamuppāda implies is that a phenomenon always hinges on another cause or condition. For instance, avijjā is dependent; when reliant on its cause, it gives rise to saṅkhārā (formations). In summary, avijjā isn't self-sufficient; it relies on a cause to exist and ignorance is not a standalone cause that is 'waiting' in some place so that the dependent effect can arise. Paṭiccasamuppāda showcases a causal phenomenon reliant on another cause to yield a resultant phenomenon.
The central essence of the teaching of dependent origination is to emphasise that nothing arises without conditions, and nothing arises independently. An effect always arises depending on a cause and that cause is also reliant on another cause. By rejecting the erroneous notion of a causeless or rootless cause, the Buddha also rejects the idea of an omnipotent (ever-present) root cause responsible for the arising of both living and non-living entities.
In several suttas pertaining to the explanation of dependent origination, the Buddha's teachings of interconnectedness can be summarised into four key sentences:
"Iti imasmiṁ sati idaṁ hoti - when this exists, that exists;
Imassuppādā idaṁ uppajjati - due to the arising of this, that arises;
Imasmiṁ asati idaṁ na hoti - when this ceases, that ceases;
Imassa nirodhā idaṁ nirujjhati - due to the cessation of this, that ceases."
These teachings indicate that all conditioned formations arises out of their respective conditions, thus leading the continuation of saṃsāra. The only way out of the saṃsāra is to eradicate the formation of respective causes. Suppose we encounter a hypothetical minute particle or formation that is permanent in nature; in that case, there would be no necessity for us to practice the Noble Eightfold Path. However, in reality, nothing is permanent, that's why it is important to follow the Noble Eightfold Path. In Upanisa-sutta, the Buddha emphasised that: "Yo paṭiccasamuppādaṃ passati, so dhammaṃ passati.": "Only if one sees dependent origination, one sees the Dhamma." So, this implies that one who fails to perceive dependent origination (paṭiccasamuppāda) cannot grasp the true essence of the Dhamma since the canker of wrong view is not eradicated.
Understanding Avijjā, and The Two Main Leaders: Avijjā and Taṇhā
Although the Buddha started the teaching of dependent origination with 'avijjāpaccayā saṅkhārā: with ignorance as condition, volition arises', he explained that the two main leaders that leads to the continuation of the cycle of rebirth are avijjā (ignorance) and taṇhā (craving). The reason is because these two phenomena are very powerful key causes that lead to arising of kamma for future rebirths.
So first, let's try to understand what avijjā means. Avijjā is simply translated into English as 'ignorance' or 'delusion'. Avijjā is an unwholesome state Avijjā that leads to suffering, as its characteristic is 'the resultant experience of suffering': "dukkhavipāka-lakkhaṇa". It is considered an unwholesome phenomenon, yielding unfavourable outcomes. In Abhidhamma, avijjā stands in opposition to vijjā, which is 'wisdom' or 'paññā'. From Abhidhamma perspective, avijjā is intricately linked with all 12 unwholesome consciousnesses, including eight greed-rooted minds, two aversion-rooted minds, two delusion-rooted minds. Subsequently, from Abhidhamma perspective, it can be said that avijjā is simply another word for the moha mental factor (cetasika) that is present in all unwholesome consciousness as moha essentially covers up the true nature of all Dhamma.
Contrary to mere ignorance of worldly matters like the names of people, places, things, locations or directions, avijjā pertains to the lack of essential knowledge capable of liberating individuals from the cycle of rebirths because avijjā obscures the Four Noble Truths, preventing one's comprehension of ultimate realities, their mutual conditionality and the law of kamma itself. Therefore, the function of avijjā is to create distorted perception, and veiling the truth for the arising of erroneous understanding of realities. In essence, the ignorance perpetuated by avijjā extends to a failure to grasp the essence of the Four Noble Truths. Thus, when engulfed with avijjā, one fails to comprehend: the five aggregates of past, present and future lives, and the twelve links of dependent origination. Just as darkness stands in opposition to brightness, the only way to eradicate avijjā is by practicing samatha for temporarily elimination it and vipassanā to eliminate it without remainder through the attainment of Path and Fruition knowledge. Thus, you must understand that the function of avijjā is to delude the mind from the reality (the Dhamma).
It's crucial to understand that kamma can determine one's rebirth into either a pleasant (sugati) realm such as deva or human, or a woeful (duggati) realm such as animal or hell. The kamma responsible for a life in sugati differs from that leading to a life in duggati. The Visuddhimagga asserts that: 'duggatigāmino kammassavisesahetu avijjā', meaning 'avijjā is a specific condition for the kamma that results in life in a woeful plane'. Similarly, the statement 'sugatigāmino kammassa visesahetu bhavataṇhā' conveys that 'bhava-taṇhā (attachment to existence) is a specific condition for the kamma that results in life in a pleasant plane'.
Moreover, the Buddha emphasised that avijjā (ignorance) and taṇhā (craving) are prominent figures not only in paṭiccasamuppāda but also in various other teachings. It is important to understand that avijjā and taṇhā are intertwined; where there is taṇhā, avijjā is present. However, avijjā may not always be accompanied by taṇhā. According to Abhidhamma, avijjā sometimes aligns with aversion (dosa) and at other times with craving (taṇhā).
Beings naturally yearn for happiness (sukha) and always seek to avoid suffering (dukkha). Yet, they inevitably encounter both sukha and dukkha and due to unwise attention, ignorance and craving arise, thus leading to accumulation of kamma. Taṇhā, fuelled by a dislike for suffering, does not arise towards undesirable objects. Thus, when driven by this aversion to dukkha, avijjā takes the lead and taṇhā is the follower, but when driven by attachment for sukha, taṇhā is the leader and avijjā follows suit.
Consider, for instance, a scenario where a person consistently engages in physical wrongdoing (such as theft or doing drugs) and forms a habit of such misconduct due to being unaware that it is improper. In this instance, avijjā assumes the forefront, as it conceals the individual's ability to comprehend the difference between wholesome and unwholesome behaviour. However, as this misconduct becomes habitual and the person continues to engage in it repeatedly, taṇhā then emerges as the primary force. In certain teachings, there is a belief that animals can be killed for human sustenance and welfare, as they are purportedly created for consumption by humans. When individuals adhere to such beliefs and engage in the physical act of killing animals for these purposes, avijjā assumes a leading role. This is because they fail to comprehend that such actions violate moral conduct and are inherently unwholesome. However, when this behaviour becomes ingrained and habitual, taṇhā emerges as the principal driving force because at this point, individuals find themselves unable to disengage from the wrongful conduct.
In the Visuddhimaggamahāṭikā (Visuddhimagga sub-commentary), it is mentioned that in the presence of suffering (dukkha), ignorance (avijjā) takes the lead, and craving (taṇhā) follows suit. Avijjā assumes leadership because its primary function is to obscure one's understanding, preventing the recognition of dukkha as dukkha. By concealing the true nature of suffering, avijjā paves the way for the emergence of taṇhā and consequently, fuelled by craving, kamma is generated. Similarly, it also further states that in the presence of happiness (sukha), craving arises. Taṇhā is drawn to sukha and conceals one's ability to see flaws in having craving. Then, avijjā follows suit. Therefore, avijjā and taṇhā alternate in assuming leadership roles. Consequently, these two states, avijjā (ignorance) and taṇhā (craving), collaborate to reinforce the cycle of kamma. In the framework of paṭiccasamuppāda, the Buddha identifies these two states as the fundamental roots of saṃsāra. With avijjā and taṇhā at the helm, sentient beings continue to revolve within the cycle of rebirths.
Three Cycles of Dependent Origination
In the framework of paṭiccasamuppāda, three cycles or rounds (vaṭṭa) can be found: 1) the cycle of mental defilements (kilesa-vaṭṭa), 2) the cycle of action (kamma-vaṭṭa), and 3) the cycle of kamma's effects (vipāka-vaṭṭa).
The primary factors within the kilesa-vaṭṭa are avijjā (ignorance) and taṇhā (craving). It is from the foundation of avijjā (ignorance) and taṇhā (craving) that the cycle of action (kamma-vaṭṭa) originates. Because of the kamma that is accumulated out of ignorance and craving, both good and bad, are 'seeds' for future existences to arise. The arising of future arising is a resultant of kamma that is accumulated and therefore, this future becoming falls under the cycle of kamma's effect (vipāka-vaṭṭa). This implies that without the influence of these mental defilements (kilesa), namely avijjā and taṇhā, kamma would not yield any results.
To simplify, the existence of the current five khanda (being reborn as a human in this life) results from past accumulated kamma fuelled by ignorance and craving. Therefore, the ignorance and craving cultivated in past lifetimes constitute the kilesa-vaṭṭa (cycle of defilements), the accumulation of kamma in the past life leading to this present human rebirth represents the kamma-vaṭṭa (cycle of action), and the manifestation of the present five khanda (current human life) signifies the vipāka-vaṭṭa (cycle of kamma's effects). Thus, the teaching of dependent origination invariably encompasses three temporal dimensions: past, present, and future.
For instance, at some point in this life, you may have made a wholesome act of dāna (donation) with the hope of attaining a divine existence (a deva). However, did you immediately become a deva? Certainly not, because such kamma does not bear fruit instantaneously upon accumulation. But let's analyse this scenario through the lens of the three cycles:
(1) your action is rooted in ignorance, as you could not fully comprehend the ultimate reality that there is no inherent existence of devas, but rather only the five clinging aggregates, which are impermanent, suffering, non-self, and repulsive and additionally, there is craving (greed-rooted) involved, longing for such an existence. Thus, you become ensnared in the cycle of defilements (kilesa-vaṭṭa);
(2) moreover, the wholesome action of dāna contributes to the cycle of actions (kamma-vaṭṭa);
(3) at some point, near the moment of death, if this kamma were to ripen, then the future existence could indeed be a blissful rebirth in the deva realm. This fruition of kamma marks the culmination of the cycle of kamma's result (vipāka-vaṭṭa).
From the immeasurable beginning of saṃsāra until now, you have accumulated countless kamma, driven by ignorance and craving. These kammic forces remain dormant, awaiting the opportunity to ripen at the moment of near-death, thereby determining your future existences. These kamma, whether good or bad, hold the power to shape your rebirths. When bad kamma ripens at the moment of death, it leads to rebirth in a woeful realm, whereas the ripening of good kamma results in a blissful birth. Therefore, if your sense of urgency in the practice is not yet strong, it becomes your responsibility in this life to strive for progress until you attain at least the stage of Sotāpanna (stream-enterer). Upon reaching this stage, all unwholesome kamma capable of leading to woeful rebirths lose their potency, ensuring protection from descent into the woeful realms.
It is essential to understand that kamma cannot be eliminated; only the defilements—namely ignorance and craving—that give rise to kamma for future rebirths can be eradicated. This underscores why the fundamental teachings of the Buddha revolve around the eradication of mental defilements. Only when these impurities are completely eradicated can future kamma be prevented from arising, ultimately leading to the cessation of the cycle of rebirths. This is why Arahants no longer experience future existences.
In the next post, avijjāpaccayā saṅkhārā: with ignorance as condition, volition arises will be covered.
May you realise the Four Noble Truths in this lifetime.